Epidemiologists and researchers who specialize in biosecurity and public health have been outlining preparedness plans for at least 20 years. The core components consist broadly of surveillance to detect pathogens; data collection and modelling to see how they spread; improvements to public-health guidance and communication; and the development of therapies and vaccines. Governments and private funders have poured millions of dollars into building these capabilities. Researchers have painstakingly tested and evaluated these plans to identify and fill gaps. Still, COVID-19 has demonstrated that the world was even less prepared than most had imagined. And what makes some scientists nervous is that current discussions on how to defend against the next pandemic are stuck on the same strategies as before.